The gamification of learning and instruction

<%"---"%> tags: 📥️/📜️/🟥️ publish: true aliases: - The gamification of learning and instruction - Kapp <%"---"%> <%* let title = "The gamification of learning and instruction"; let date = tp.date.now("YYYY-MM-DD"); await tp.file.rename(`& ${date} ${title}`); _%> > [!Enllaç]- > zotero_link:: [Kapp - 2012 - The gamification of learning and instruction.pdf](zotero://select/library/items/B47FFWL9) > [!Cita]- > Cita:: Kapp > [!Resum]- > Abstract:: > [!Paraules_Clau]- > Keywords:: ★, Game > [!autors]- > Autors:: K. M. Kapp > [!meta]- > url:: > doi:: > isbn:: > [!relacionat]- > [!hipòtesi]- > Hipòtesi:: > [!metodologia]- > Metodologia:: > [!resultats]- Resultats > Resultats:: > [!resum]- Resum dels punts importants > Resum:: ## Notes | Codi Color | Significat | | ----------------------------------------- | --------------------- | | Vermell | Desacord amb l'Autor | | Groc | Punt Interesant | | Verd | Important per la tesi | - "Games and gamification experiences are not going away. The engagement achieved through games means that gamification is a concept that needs to be part of every learning professional’s tool box. Games provide meaning and context to learners, they provide a set of boundaries within a “safe” environment to explore, think, and “try things out.” Gamification is the ideal process for creating engaging learning environments. Game elements such as providing learners with permission to fail, encouragement of out-of-box thinking, and fostering a sense of control create rich learning experiences. The addition of game elements on top of traditional learning environments is a way of creating learning that aids in retention and is impactful. Learning professionals, managers, and others need to own the term “gamification” and use it to improve learning and performance within organizations.” [Page 3](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=3&annotation=QTYIM45N) - Definició de gamificació segons Kapp. - "But we should also be cautious, as consultants and gurus treat “gamification” as a personal gold rush and try to add points, rewards, and badges to everything we do. Those things are elements of most games, and among the easier to implement, but those things alone do not a game make. The more challenging and beneficial aspects to gamification include the story, the challenge, the sense of control, decision making, and a sense of mastery—these are the elements of games that are of the most value.” [Page 20](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=20&annotation=4EQ6RN8X) - La gamificació no son punts, recompenses, etc... Hi ha narrativa, reptes, autonomia... - "The first chapter introduces terminology. What is a game? What is gamification?” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=LL5T2PN6) - "Chapter Two examines the individual elements that make up a game from the rules to the aesthetics and describes how they all contribute to game play.” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=MGZCHESR) - "In Chapter Three, the theories behind the elements of gamification are presented. The chapter covers operant conditioning and the reinforcement schedules, but only as one of many elements that make games engaging. Self-Determination Theory is described and related to games.” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=EB5WRNRL) - "Chapter Four reviews research studies describing the effectiveness of games as well as the effectiveness of specific game elements such as the use of avatars and third-person versus first-person perspective.” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=75CF3U8G) - "The fifth chapter looks at how gamification can be used for learning and problem solving.” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=GX44XUES) - "Chapter Six is a discussion of both the different types of game players and the different types of games that exist. Cooperation, competitive, and the self-expression aspects of games are addressed, as are the different needs of novice, expert, and master-level players.” [Page 26](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=26&annotation=B4A6GCP8) - "Chapter Seven presents a framework for developing games that teach higher order thinking skills from predicting outcomes, to synthesizing content to ultimately problem solving. The chapter also presents suggestions to help with the process of developing a game to solve a specific problem.” [Page 26](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=26&annotation=MD9TTD6Y) - "In Chapter Eight methods are presented for creating game-based learning in the cognitive domains of declarative, conceptual, and procedural knowledge as well as rules-based learning” [Page 26](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=26&annotation=IFH39VYB) - "Chapter Fourteen provides two final examples of gamification in action and provides a couple of next step action items to further your research and study on gamification. The best way to experience gamification is first-hand” [Page 27](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=27&annotation=D8TKFSJC) - "“Gamification is using game-based mechanics, aesthetics and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems.”” [Page 46](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=46&annotation=YCXVJWBP) - "Mechanics. The mechanics of playing a game include levels, earning badges, point systems, scores, and time constraints. These are the elements that are used in many games. Mechanics alone are insufficient to turn a boring experience into a game-like engaging experience, but they are crucial building blocks used during the gamification process. • Aesthetics. Without engaging graphics or a well-designed experienced, gamification cannot be successful. The user interface or the look and feel of an experience is an essential element in the process of gamification. How an experience is aesthetically perceived by a person greatly influences his or her willingness to accept gamification” [Page 47](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=47&annotation=3XUCJQNP) - "• Motivate Action. Motivation is a process that energizes and gives direction, purpose or meaning to behavior and actions. For individuals to be motivated, the challenge must not be too hard or too simple. Driving participation in an action or activity is a core element in gamification. • Promote Learning. Gamification can be used to promote learning because many of the elements of gamification are based on educational psychology and are techniques that designers of instruction, teachers, and professors have been using for years. Items such as assigning points to activities, presenting corrective feedback, and encouraging collaboration on projects have been the staples of many educational practitioners. The difference is that gamification provides another layer of interest and a new way weaving together those elements into an engaging game space that both motivates and educates learners. • Solve Problems. Gamification has a high potential to help solve problems. The cooperative nature of games can focus more than one individual on solving a problem. The competitive nature of games encourages many to do their best to accomplish the goal of winning.” [Page 48](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=48&annotation=IPNAUAUH) - "A serious game is an experience designed using game mechanics and game thinking to educate individuals in a specific content domain. There are serious games for leadership, sale techniques, and other business topics as well as many serious games in the realm of healthcare. These folks approach the serious game as a noble use of game mechanics and a way to engage and interact with learners.” [Page 51](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=51&annotation=TWVEUTAQ) - Definició de Serious Games. - "Key Takeaways The key takeaways from this chapter are • A “game” is a system in which players engage in an abstract challenge, defined by rules, interactivity, and feedback, that results in a quantifiable outcome often eliciting an emotional reaction. • “Gamification” is using game-based mechanics, aesthetics, and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems. • Gamification is not the superficial addition of points, rewards, and badges to learning experiences. • Gamification is growing; soon a gamified service for consumer goods marketing and customer retention will become as important as Facebook, Twitter, or Amazon. • Global 2000 organizations are quickly putting gamification into place. • Gamification techniques can be applied to learning applications within any type of industry, from the military to retail to computer services to manufacturing organizations. • Serious games are created by using game-based mechanics, aesthetics, and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems. In other words, they are created through the gamification of traditional learning content. • Learning professionals, educators, and faculty members have many of the skills, knowledge, and abilities to take a leadership position in the gamification of learning and instruction.” [Page 59](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=59&annotation=AUT36B4D) - "Abstractions of Concepts and Reality Imagine trying to duplicate all the complexity of running a major city, creating an amusement park, or gearing up for a military assault. These are involved and complicated processes and the backdrops for a variety of engaging and fun games. Games based on this complex subject matter work, not because they include all the complexities, but precisely because they reduce the complexity and use broad generalizations to represent reality. The player is involved in an abstraction of events, ideas, and reality. Games are based on models of the real world. A game may be regarded as a dynamic model of reality in which the model provides a representation of reality at a particular period of time. This is known in the academic literature as an operating model, as distinct from verbal, graphic, mathematical, or physical models. It is also important to note that the modeled reality may be hypothetical, imagined, or fictional as is often in the case in games like Dungeons and Dragons and video games like the Halo series.1 Abstracted reality has a number of advantages over reality. First, it helps the player manage the conceptual space being experienced. In other words, it helps the player understand what is going on within the game. It minimizes the complexity. The game Monopoly and the game Chess are abstractions to such a degree that financial monopolies and military strategy are literally reduced to the space of a game board. This makes it possible for players to c02.indd 26 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 62](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=62&annotation=NBRR33WI) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 27 engage with the concepts of strategy and financial acquisition without having to experience war or being in a monopoly themselves. It is possible to manage the concepts easily within the abstracted space. The second advantage is that cause and effect can be more clearly identifi ed. In a large, interconnected system like a city, raising taxes might eventually cause people to move away and the long-term impact might be an erosion of the tax base, but waiting years for that to happen doesn’t provide a clear cause and effect relationship to those living in the city. Additionally, issues such as quality of life, availability of employers, quality of school systems, and other factors influence people’s willingness to stay within a given location. Games highlight relationships and make those relationships more clearly linked so that once a city manager raises taxes, non-character players begin moving out of the city in one or two subsequent turns. Third, abstracting reality removes extraneous factors. Reality is messy; there are a lot of events that happen in real life that would not make playing a game very interesting. Everyday occurrences in reality make for uninteresting game play. Few games force a player to stop all activity and get a haircut or go to the dentist. Important in real life, removed in games. In games with guns, it takes many real-life fatal shots to bring down the game character. A hospital visit for that wound to the shoulder—out of the question. Reloading is required but happens infrequently, and for some reason cases of bullets are strewn all over the place. If that weren’t the case, every time a player was shot, he or she would be required to visit the hospital and be bedridden for weeks or would die instantly and end the game. Games remove elements of reality to keep the player focused on the essence of the game. Removing extraneous factors keeps the game moving and the player involved. Too many elements of reality and the game ceases to be engaging. Fourth, it reduces the time required to grasp the concepts. In complex systems the ability to grasp all the concepts and ideas involved can be overwhelming. For example, without training, driving a race car can be a complicated and frightening ordeal, but in racing games the controls are abstractions of reality and easier to use than in real life. The abstraction of the interface and the game concepts makes it easier to grasp complex processes.” [Page 63](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=63&annotation=5I72EY44) - "Goals To many, the difference between a game and play is the introduction of a goal. Sure, you and your friends can casually run around the park and play on the jungle gym, but when someone says, “I bet I can beat you to the other end of the playground,” suddenly play time is over and a game begins. The simple introduction of a goal adds purpose, focus, and measurable outcomes. You now have a method to measure the quality of play or, at least, certain aspects of the play. Exploration of the park and the surroundings are over and a focus on a specific outcome now becomes the main activity. Introducing a goal or a series of goals to a casual play situation usually creates a game. As stated in Salen and Zimmerman’s work, Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals: “Goals are fundamental to games . . . at the outcome of a game, the goals are either reached or not reached and this quantifiable outcome is part of our definition of games.”2 Game goals, unlike instructional goals, which are sometimes broad sweeping statements (understand good customer service), are specific and unambiguous. Typically, there is no doubt whether or not a game goal was achieved. Either you defeat the dragon or you die trying, you solve the puzzle or you can’t figure it out, you take over territory or you forfeit ground. In many games, goals are clear and visible both figuratively and literary. In the causal game of Tetris, the goal is to prevent the blocks from reaching the top of the screen. As you are playing the game, you see your progress on the screen by observing how far away the blocks are from the top of the screen. You see, at every point in the game, exactly how you are doing. Even a simple game like Tic-Tac-Toe provides visual cues as to how each player is performing. You can see where your opponent placed the X’s and the open spots left for your O’s. The race to the other side of the playground described before provides visual cues as to progress. You can see who finishes first. In fact, that visual cue determines who wins. Visually understanding how far you are from a goal provides incentive, feedback, and an indication of progress as well as a measurement against others. “Hey, I scored 21,001 in that game; that’s 1 better than you.” The c02.indd 28 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 64](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=64&annotation=59EJVL76) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 29 goal of the game is the primary device for determining level of effort at a certain point in the game, strategies, moves, and, ultimately, who wins. The goal sustains the game and keeps players moving forward. A goal gives the player the freedom and autonomy to pursue it using different approaches and methods. Knowing the goal, one can apply different techniques to achieve the goal. It seems counter-intuitive, but clear goals like “rescue the princess” provide the player with choices. You can go directly to the princess and fight the dragon or you can go through the forest and collect the necessary weaponry to beat the dragon or you can build a flying machine and bypass the dragon altogether. But goals have to be well structured and sequenced to have sustained meaning and to motivate players to achieve those goals. In instructional terms, you have to create a terminal goal and support that goal with a series of enabling objectives. These enabling objectives serve as small incremental steps that allow a player to move from one accomplishment to the next. The reason for this is two-fold. First, once a player accomplishes the goal of the game, the game is over. Once you’ve solved the puzzle, rescued the princess, or taken over all the territory, you are done. “In this sense, a game’s goal is the death of play.”3 Achieving the goal of the game means the game is over. So a number of smaller goals leading to a larger goal are important in providing sustained play. You don’t want the game to end too early. The second is that a goal can be difficult to achieve without building prerequisite skills necessary to achieve the goal. For example, one cannot rescue the princess unless he or she first learns to slay dragons. In games, defeating the final villain or enemy often requires learning a combination of skills, often at different levels in the game, and then using that combination of skills to defeat the game or, in other words, to achieve the ultimate goal.” [Page 65](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=65&annotation=NXPDXC8J) - "Rules At its simplest form, a game is just a set of defined rules. There are rules indicating the maximum number of players who can play a game, rules describing how to score points, rules indicating what is allowed in the game, and, in the case of digital games, rules that apply to writing the code that makes the c02.indd 29 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 65](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=65&annotation=SSENPMHM) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 30 video game character jump. Without rules, games would not exist. Rules are designed specifically to limit player actions and keep the game manageable. But the multiple levels of rules within games is not always clear and, when designing a game or using game-based elements to enhance learning, understanding the different levels of rules is important. In the book Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals, the authors define different types of rules that apply to games.4 • Operational Rules. These are the rule that describe how the game is played. When you want to play a game and someone explains that you can’t open the door until you collect the right key, he is describing an operational rule. Or he tells you that collecting two thousand tokens allows you to buy a cooler snowboard, which is also an operational rule. Once you gain a basic understanding of operational rules, you can play the game. • Constituative Rules or Foundational Rules. These are the underlying formal structures dictating game functionality. An example is the mathematical formulas used to calculate how many times the number 6 will appear on a die. These tend to be abstract and need only be understood by the designer of the game. However, occasionally a player can determine these underlying rules and use them to his or her advantage. In the 1990s a group of math students from MIT used a method of counting cards in the card game Black Jack to win millions of dollars at casinos in Las Vegas. They achieved this feat by moving beyond the operational rules governing the game such as “the cards from 2 through 9 are valued at their face value” and “the 10 card, Jack, Queen, and King are all valued at 10” to the foundational rules such as “We are playing with three decks, which means there are 156 cards and that means there are a total of forty-eight high cards and four of them have been played already, so the probability that the next card is a high card is .28.”5 • Implicit Rules or Behavior Rules. These are the rules that govern the social contract between two or more players, in other words, the rules related to being a good sport about the game—game c02.indd 30 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 66](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=66&annotation=CAC2ZPJ3) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 31 etiquette. These are implied rules and are usually not written. Yet, they have a powerful influence over the game. If they are violated, it is usually a penalty and in a team game can constitute the player being kicked out. • Instructional Rules. Another set of rules exist in an instructional game. These are the rules that you want the learner to know and internalize after the game is played. It is the reason the game is being created in the first place. These rules are the rules that govern the learning within the process of the game. For example, we were creating an online board game to teach inventory managers concepts and ideas to reduce inventory within the organization. One of the rules was that if the player selected a wrong answer, the inventory levels in the factory went up. So the player with the lowest score won the game, not the player with the highest score. This was a conscious choice to reinforce the instructional rule that lower inventory was desirable. The actual game play would not have changed if the score went down, but the instructional lesson may have been diminished if it had.” [Page 67](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=67&annotation=C5QR7XBL) - "Conflict, Competition, or Cooperation Games involve conflict, competition, or cooperation. A conflict is a challenge provided by a meaningful opponent. To win a challenge, the player must actively defeat an opponent. This occurs when one team works against another in a football game, or in an online first-person shooter where one player faces off against another to see who will be the last player “standing” at the end of the game. This can also be a scenario whereby a player is in conflict with the game system. Elements of the game attempt to thwart player progress, such as non-player characters shooting at the player while working toward their objective. The meaning of the play in the context of conflict is to become a winner while avoiding a loss at the hands of an opponent.6 This is typically accomplished by inflicting damage on the opponent, by scoring more points against the opponent, or by hindering the progress of the opponent. c02.indd 31 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 67](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=67&annotation=CSMZQKKA) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 32 Competition is where opponents are “constrained from impeding each other and instead devote the entirety of their attentions to optimizing their own performance.”7 This occurs in racing games. Two players race to the finish line and each tries to go as quickly as possible but they don’t interfere with one another. In this case the meaning of the play is to achieve the best possible accomplishment against the environment, obstacles, and the opponent. Winning is accomplished by being faster, cleverer, or more skilled than the opponents. Cooperation is the act of working with others to achieve a mutually desirable and beneficial outcome. This is the social aspect of games that many players enjoy. In these types of games, the more individuals work together, the more they are able to achieve. FarmVille, the online social networking game that lets a person run his or her own virtual farm, uses the concept of cooperation with its co-op farming elements. Often in role-play games, two or more players of different player types must team together to overcome an obstacle or accomplish a goal. Working together and achieving a goal is the winning state of cooperative play. While it is helpful to consider the elements of conflict, competition, and cooperation separately, often good game design includes elements of all three. In the online role-play game World of Warcraft, players can battle each other, they can form guilds to accomplish cooperative goals, and they compete with others to achieve certain quests as quickly as possible. The game intertwines the three elements to provide an engaging game play environment.” [Page 68](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=68&annotation=T4IMY8LB) - "Time Time is an element that has many dimensions as it relates to game design and game play. The most obvious is to use time as a motivator for player activity and action. As soon as that timer appears in the upper corner of an instructional video game screen and starts to count down (or in some cases up), it raises the stress level and motivates action. Players no longer loiter, leisurely explore an area, or wait to see what happens next. Instead, they focus, jump into action, and begin to undertake the tasks needed to accomplish the level or game’s goal. In this way, time serves to spur player action and to force the player to work under pressure. This can be valuable in mimicking certain c02.indd 32 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 68](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=68&annotation=JPAS4DIV) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 33 work conditions under which time is a key success factor, such as resolving a customer complaint as quickly as possible in a call center and then answering the next call or completing a task within a certain amount of time. Time can also be a resource that needs to be allocated during a game. The allocation of time to one task and then another task can be critical to success. For example, in many games it is important to gather treasure, but if the player spends all his or her time looking for treasure, he or she may not complete a level in the allocated time or may lose out on gathering other rewards. In more corporate focused games, players can learn how much time they should spend on one activity while balancing their overall time allotment. Players may be put into situations in which they have to decide, “Should I spend my time answering all my e-mails or focus on voicemail or have fewer face-to-face meetings?” Prioritizing activities because of time constraints can be a challenge in terms of determining what time is spent on what activity, a challenge people deal with on a daily basis. Video games allow the designer of the game to compress time to show consequences of actions more quickly than during the natural course of events. In an actual situation, a person may have to wait months for the results of an action, such as the decision to build an apartment building, hoping it can be filled with tenants. In a video game, those months can be compressed into minutes. In the game Civilization V, hundreds of years go by in a matter of a few hours as the players take turns moving warriors, ships, and settlers. Without the convention of compressed time, games would be onerous and boring.” [Page 69](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=69&annotation=S99MMEZZ) - "Reward Structures Badges, points, and rewards are not all bad; it’s just that they are not the only component to gamification. Understanding how reward structures can work and how to integrate these structures into games is important. Reward structures have a role to play as an integral part of games and not the focus of a gamification effort. While it’s fun to obtain a high score on a video game, it is just as fun to let others know you are the one who received the high score and to imaging c02.indd 33 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 69](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=69&annotation=AE4ZWDXB) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 34 being on the top of the leaderboard, as depicted in Figure 2.1. Game designers are aware of this and, early in arcade games, they created a leaderboard to add a social component to what was then essentially a solitary endeavor. The leaderboard is a list of the top scores in the game so whoever plays the game could see all the players’ names or initials and scores. It was a simple invention but created a powerful motivator to play the game again and again and gave players a chance to socially interact in discussions around the game and high scores. It also gave bragging rights and social capital to the individuals who achieved the high scores. In addition to leaderboards, games also provide players with instant reward in the form of points. Sometimes those points are directly related to Figure 2.1. The Goal? Be at the Top of the Leaderboard. Image reprinted with permission of the artist, Kristin Bittner. c02.indd 34 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 70](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=70&annotation=VHG2WY2K) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 35 the activity. In football video game Madden NFL 12, when a player scores a touchdown, the team earns 6 points. In the social networking game Mafia Wars, points are earned by completing jobs or winning fights, which are both activities directly related to the narrative of the game, which is running a criminal empire. In other games like Super Mario Brothers, you can earn points by collecting coins, which is not essential to the goal of the game, which is make it to the castle and rescue Princess Toadstool from Bowser. In addition to points, many games have extra abilities or prizes that can be earned for accomplishing certain tasks within the game. In the video game Call of Duty, rewards can be translated into an upgrade of weapons or the ability to have special tactics available. For example, a kill streak (killing eleven opponents without being killed yourself ) enables you to “call in the dogs,” which provides dogs who sniff out enemies. There are two views on rewards and badges: one is to make them as easy to get as possible early in a game so that players are hooked and want to continue playing. The other school of thought is to avoid easy badges that are not related to activities that are rewarding in and of themselves. For example, in Call of Duty to have a kill streak of eleven is a good accomplishment in and of itself. The subsequent ability to “call in the dogs” is nice but not the main motivator for trying to have an eleven-kill streak. It is better to link activities within the game to reward than to have random rewards. Unfortunately, e-learning courses and classroom instruction do not offer easily traceable progress reports like leaderboards, badges, or rewards. Wouldn’t it be great to have a corporate leaderboard so employees could know how well they were doing? Or have badges employees wear to know how accomplished they are? The gamification of work provides added incentive to employees through carefully crafted rewards structures.” [Page 71](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=71&annotation=CAJL7QLB) - "Feedback One of the features video games, board games, and other types of games have over traditional learning environments is the frequency and intensity of feedback. Feedback in games is almost constant. In a video game the player has real-time feedback on progress toward goal, amount of life or energy c02.indd 35 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 71](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=71&annotation=K9Q82R8A) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 36 left, location, time remaining, how much “stuff ” they have in inventory, and even how other players are doing. In fact, often a screen or a player will flash to indicate the danger of being eliminated with the next wrong move. On a board game you can see where your piece is related to others, you know who is taking the next turn, and you can see how much progress is to be made with the roll of the dice and how close you and your opponents are to successfully finishing. Games provide informational feedback. Feedback in learning or playing games is designed to evoke the correct behavior, thoughts, or actions. Games provide information upon which the player can act. The informational feedback is designed to indicate the degree of “rightness” or “wrongness” of a response, action, or activity. Feedback immediately informs the learner if he or she did the right thing, the wrong thing, or somewhere in the middle but doesn’t tell the learner how to correct the action. The second form of feedback is to provide information to the leaner to guide him or her toward the correct outcome. If you did the wrong thing, you should be prompted, guided, or pointed toward a more appropriate action or activity but not told exactly what to do, if nothing else, through the knowledge that the activity you chose was not correct. Often these two feedback mechanisms overlap. If you are playing a video game as a spy and you enter a door and an alarm goes off and bad guys instantly become alert, you know you went in the wrong door, but that action also informs you. Look for other options for entering the building such as that open window you passed on the way to the door. It is not didactic; it doesn’t tell the player, “no” you should do X instead of Y. Instead, the player suffers or rejoices in the consequences of the actions taken. In game designer parlance, the term often used for effective, exciting, and engaging feedback is “juicy.” When creating feedback, designers strive for juiciness. So what is juicy feedback? Well-known game designer and researcher, Robin Hunicke describes juicy feedback as having the following characteristics:8 • Tactile—The player can almost feel the feedback as it is occurring on screen. Feedback is not forced or unnatural within the game play. c02.indd 36 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 72](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=72&annotation=NF4WIM5S) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 37 • Inviting—It’s something the player desires to achieve. As the player interacts with the game, he or she wants the feedback and works to get the positive feedback. The player is given just the right amount of power and rewards. • Repeatable—The feedback can be received again and again if the goals, challenges, or obstacles are met. • Coherent—The feedback stays within the context of the game. It is congruent with on-screen actions and activities as well as with the storyline unfolding as the interactions occur. • Continuous—It is not something that the player has to wait for, but occurs as a natural result of interacting within the context of the game environment. • Emergent—It flows naturally from the game; it unfolds in an orderly and well-sequenced fashion. It feels like it belongs within the context of the environment and is not distracting. • Balanced—The player knows he or she is receiving feedback and reacts based on the feedback but is not overwhelmed by it feedback or thinks of it as direct feedback. • Fresh—The feedback is a little surprising contains some unexpected twists, and is interesting and inviting. The surprises are welcomed and congruent with the continuous feedback. Jesse Schell, a professor at Carnegie Mellon University’s Entertainment Technology Center, describes “juicy” simply as “a ripe peach, just a little bit of interaction with it gives you a continuous flow of delicious reward.”9” [Page 73](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=73&annotation=BHDKC2A5) - "Levels Games have different types of levels. One is the level- or mission-based structure whereby players progress from one level to the next as they move toward the end of the game. The other concept of level is the degree of difficulty the player chooses when he or she first enters the game. The third level is the level c02.indd 37 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 73](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=73&annotation=9UWGFXD2) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 38 of experience and skills the player receives playing the game. Typically, these three concepts of levels occur simultaneously as the player enters and moves through a game. Game Levels Mission-based levels serve several purposes within the design of a game. One purpose is to keep the game space manageable. Developing a game in which a player wanders through one vast level accomplishing hundreds of objectives and interacting with dozens of non-player characters is a daunting programming task and is intimidating for the player. Additionally, attempting to weave a coherent storyline into a game play environment where a player can go wherever he wants in any order can be difficult. To overcome these problems, game developers add levels to games. In each level the player accomplishes a small set of goals and, when completed, moves on to the next level. A well-designed progression of levels accomplishes three goals. One is that each level helps the story narrative progress. The player learns new information or insights at each level, which keeps her engaged as part of the story unfolds in each level. By unveiling a little bit of the narrative at each level, the player feels compelled to move from one level to the next to find out what will happen and how the narrative will end. The second is that skills are built and reinforced at each level. At the earliest level of the game, players are taught basic skills such as how to navigate, what elements in the game world are movable or important, and how to use any weapons, special abilities or power-ups. In the early levels, as the players learn about the game world, they typically learn one skill at a time as they move through a level. Also, some levels may simply be a chance to practice a new skill, so no new information or skills is introduced. Then, as the player progresses and the levels become more difficult, players are required to recall and use skills learned in previous levels to advance. However, at this point the players usually have to perform the skills more quickly or under greater pressure to make the application of the skill more challenging. Toward the end of the game, players typically must combine skills learned from previous levels in unique combinations to win the game. c02.indd 38 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 74](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=74&annotation=BLV3E4EQ) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 39 The third element is that levels serve as motivation. When a player masters a level he or she then wants to progress to the next level and then the next level, and so on until completing the game. The different levels provide small, achievable goals that lead to the player wanting to engage in more and more game activities so he or she can eventually go to the next level. Playing Levels Playing a game that is too difficult is not fun. Playing a game that is too easy is not fun either. Therefore, the quandary for game developers is to create a game that is neither too hard nor too easy. But when developing a game for a broad audience with unknown skill sets, the task becomes even more daunting. How do you create a game that appropriately challenges players at multiple levels of expertise and experience? The answer is to create a game that is both easy and hard through the use of different levels of entry into the game. By providing an easy, intermediate, and difficult version of the same game, more players are able to enjoy and partake in the game play. Create an extremely difficult level designed for more experienced players with faster bad guys, more challenging puzzles, and less time to complete levels. Then create a mode where everything is slower, help bubbles pop up on the screen to provide guidance, and challenges are more manageable. This level appeals to novice gamers who are just trying to learn how the game works and who need simple challenges and basic assistance as they play the game. The novice level provides a comfortable way for new players to acclimate to the game. The third level created is usually the intermediate level, which is aimed at the middle level of difficulty providing the game space where most players will play. The three levels also increase the replayability of the games. Once someone defeats the game at the easy level, he or she may challenge him- or herself with the hardest level to see how he or she will do under more difficult circumstances. This concept of creating three different game play levels can be easily transferred to the creation of educational games. When creating an educational game, consider designing three levels of interaction into the game. You can develop an easy, intermediate, and hard level, which can be effective c02.indd 39 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 75](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=75&annotation=WBHKHGIB) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 40 for catching the attention of a wide audience. Designing three levels makes it more accessible to learners and may encourage them to replay the game. Another three-level approach for an educational game is to create a demonstration, practice, and test mode, with each level providing different information and a different challenge. If you were creating a game to teach someone how to use a piece of equipment or how to conduct an interview, you might want to create one level where the learner watches a demonstration of the proper procedure or technique. This provides the learner with knowledge and information. In essence, the first level provides the instruction and teaching needed to perform the task. This level would be for someone who was a complete novice. The next level would be the practice level where the learner is given guidance and feedback on whether or not he or she is performing the right tasks. This mode might provide arrows, hints, instructions, highlights, and advice to the learner as he or she follows the procedure. This level would give enough help to guide the learner toward achieving the goal. Finally, create a test or “free play” mode where the learners are not given any guidance. They just have to play the game independently and are either successful or not. This would be the level of the most difficulty, but it would also be a chance for learners to apply what they are learning directly to the task at hand in a similar environment to what they would actually be doing on the job or in the classroom laboratory. Providing different entry levels into one game provides access to players or learners with different knowledge levels, allows players to experience the game at different difficulty levels, and provides a way to make the game accessible to a broad audience. Player Levels As a player progresses through a game, he or she is gaining more and more experience. To reward loyalty for playing the game and for progressing through levels, players are often awarded what is known as “experience points,” a unit of measurement typically used in role-playing video games to quantify a player character’s progression through the game. Experience points are awarded for the completion of quests, for overcoming obstacles c02.indd 40 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 76](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=76&annotation=MLJUT3HC) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 41 and opponents, and for making it from one level to the next higher level. Experience points can typically be accumulated throughout the game and used to achieve special abilities, earn items of value, or sometimes used as currency to be spent on specific abilities or attributes chosen by the player. Players value achieving higher and higher levels and gaining more and more experience points because each level is more difficult and success at the level provides a feeling of mastery and accomplishment.” [Page 77](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=77&annotation=7IHAFIFY) - "Storytelling While not all games have a story narrative behind them, storytelling is an essential part of the gamificaiton of learning and instruction. The element of “story” provides relevance and meaning to the experience. It provides context for the application of tasks. Simple games like Tic-Tac-Toe are not guided by a story. Neither are games like hide and seek, freeze tag, or word searches. But a surprising number of simple games have more story behind them than you may think. Chess uses terms like knight, king, and bishop to evoke a back story of two warring factions, the kid’s game Capture the Flag has a similar underlying story, and you can become a king in Checkers. Simple video games like Bejeweled even have a loose story associated with them. The underlying story becomes more evident when you hear the original name of the game, “Diamond Mine,” which evokes the story of someone mining away looking for jewels. Early video games added a thin story layer to make them more interesting and engaging than merely shooting or dodging pixels. Often, just the name of the game and some crude graphics were enough to create a compelling story in the player’s mind. Space Invaders conjured up an entire story involving saving the Earth from relentless aliens, and Missile Command made you the commander of a base trying to save cities and your own soldiers from inevitable destruction. Today, video games have huge back stories, complete with complex storylines, plot twists, and surprises. Can you say World of Warcraft or Halo? Even player-driven games like Eve Online have hundreds of underlying stories that have been created by the players themselves. Humans are great at adding story narrative to a variety of situations because stories add meaning, provide context, and guide action. c02.indd 41 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 77](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=77&annotation=WKD8KT5C) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 42 Stories have been used for centuries to pass information from one person to another and to guide behavior and thinking. The combination of a video game and storytelling provides an interactive story that engages and moves the player forward. Well-designed educational games blend a task-related story with interactive game elements to help the player learn the desired behaviors, actions, and thinking patterns that support the desired outcome within a particular context. Games can provide a visual and narrative context for player performance. A game provides a place for players to practice activities as they directly relate to the narrative of their own jobs or academic learning goals. Storytelling as a form of teaching or providing lessons is alive and well outside of a game context. One worker tells another a “story” about how to do a job or what to avoid. Learners, students, and employees remember stories more effectively than random lists of policies and procedures. Adding game elements and involving the learner in the story can make the learning even more powerful and memorable. A well-crafted game-based story focused on helping learners to solve problems educates learners and is easily recalled when the actual situation arises. Storytelling within an instructional game allows learners a vicarious experience through the story which they can apply to their work situation or learning environment. The elements that make this possible are • Characters • Plot (something happens) • Tension • Resolution Adding these elements together creates an effective story to accompany the elements of the game. Story elements are not only engaging, but they guide the player through the game as he or she attempts to fulfill story elements and to obtain the goal of the game. A story within a video game typically unfolds with a character encountering a problem or a situation. The problem builds tension in the story as the character may not know what to do or how to react or, worse, may do c02.indd 42 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 78](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=78&annotation=NWZZP3VT) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 43 the wrong thing. Then a solution is offered in the form of a colleague, a moment of inspiration, or an idea (or even reading a policy); then results are presented in a positive manner. This simple structure can be used for gamebased story scenarios to help learners understand what they must do to be successful in their environment. It is as if a wise mentor, faculty member, or co-worker is telling them the best method to deal with a situation.” [Page 79](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=79&annotation=QNVPJ78D) - "The Hero’s Journey A common story method in most games is known as the monomyth or the hero’s journey.10 The hero’s journey was first described by Joseph Campbell in 1949 and then built upon by Christopher Vogler in 1992. The elements of the journey provide a solid foundation for the unfolding of a story within a game. A visual depiction of the journey appears in Figure 2.2. The journey works as follows. First, we encounter the hero or heroine as a regular person leading an ordinary, regular life. Then he or she is called to action, as something happens that interrupts his or her ordinary life and seemingly forces him or her into taking some sort of action. However, the hero or heroine is reluctant to spring into action and may refuse the initial invitation to take action. Then some wise figure or mentor causes the hero or heroine to have an epiphany, realizing he or she must act. Then the hero or heroine leaves his or her ordinary life and enters into the adventure or quest. This is often done after another disruptive incident that forces him or her to cross the threshold into the adventure world. At this point, villains and enemies are encountered in minor challenges and the hero or heroine makes some allies and learns how this new world works. Of course, it is never an easy trip. The next step in the journey is when the hero or heroine encounters setbacks and needs to try something new or learn new skills. Once these new skills are learned, the person encounters the peak of the adventure, facing a life-or-death crisis by confronting the villain in a horrendous battle. For a while it looks like the hero or heroine will be killed but he or she survives by overcoming fear and acting upon the wise counsel received earlier in the journey. He or she reaps the rewards that are part of defeating the villain. c02.indd 43 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 79](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=79&annotation=VPISN49Z) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 44 The hero or heroine returns to the ordinary world but, it turns out, all the problems still are not resolved. The villain wasn’t really vanquished as the hero or heroine thought. This time the battle/crisis is far greater than the last battle and the hero or heroine must draw on all his or her knowledge and inner strength to defeat the villain; often this is when a solitary hero or heroine realizes that teamwork is a critical element to success and partners with others to achieve goals. At the end the journey is over and crisis is resolved, the villain is gone, and the hero or heroine has improved the lives of others in the ordinary world.” [Page 80](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=80&annotation=N48Q4HMH) ![[590Zotero/Media/Kapp/Kapp-80-x82-y235.png]] - "Curve of Interest The interest curve within a game is the flow and sequence of events that occur over time that maintains the player’s interest. The idea is to purposely sequence events within the flow to grab and hold the player’s attention, similar to many educational models, which start with gaining the learner’s attention before instruction begins. However, the curve of interest extends the concept throughout an entire experience. The idea is that the quality of an experience can be measured by the extent to which its unfolding sequence of events is able to hold a learner’s attention. As a designer, you can plot the level of interest over time. The first part of the curve of interest is an entry point—the learner begins instruction. The learner should enter with some level of interest or he or she wouldn’t be participating in the learning event in the first place. This probably comes from an externally or internally driven motivation factor, such as, “Hey, I really think this is a great subject for me to know something about” or “Hey, if I don’t take this learning, I could get fired.” But the designer’s job is to take that initial interest and raise it to a new level; Schell calls it “the hook.”11 This is something that really grabs the learner and gets him or her excited about the learning experience. It is an interesting case study or a description of the danger of not doing the task correctly or it is a mystery or even a series of questions the learner cannot answer. Once the initial hook is “set,” the next step is to settle down to business. If the learning experience is well-crafted, the learner’s interest will continually rise, temporarily peeking at different points. Finally, at the end, is the “climax,” and the learning is then over. And, hopefully, the learner leaves the instruction with some interest left over and with knowledge gained by the carefully sequenced instruction. c02.indd 45 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 81](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=81&annotation=WZT7RZGL) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 46 If you are having learners drop out of your instruction or tune out, go back and check out your interest curve to see whether a re-sequencing might not solve your problem. Interest curves can be very useful when creating a learning experience. By charting out the level of expected interest over the course of a learning experience, trouble spots often become clear and can be corrected. Also, when observing learners having the experience, it is useful to compare their level of observed interest to the level of interest that you, as the designer, anticipated. Then you can see what “works” for your learners and what does not work.” [Page 82](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=82&annotation=RQ2F8YFE) - "Aesthetics It might not seem like it, but aesthetics—art, beauty, and visual elementsare part of every game from the symmetry of the Tic-Tac-Toe game space to the clever little Monopoly pieces all the way to the cinematic detail of a video game like Red Dead Redemption with its panoramic views of the American West. Regardless of the game, aesthetics play an important role. Chess pieces require certain aesthetics to distinguish a bishop from a pawn, a knight from a queen, and even to tell one side (white) from the other (black). But beyond those aesthetics, Chess pieces have become a constant source of inspiration for artists who create beautifully handmade pieces or craft an entire board of dinosaurs or Star Wars characters to assume the roles of pawn, knight, queen, and others. Ignoring aesthetics in the design and creation of a game or the use of gamification techniques reduces the overall experience of the players. The space in which the game is played becomes boring without aesthetics. Appropriate and aligned visuals, attention to detail, simple contrasts, or colorful backdrops create an immersive environment that contributes to the overall game experience. The aesthetics help the players become caught up in the game experience. The artistry, careful mingling of descriptions, and attention to design elements becomes compelling. Even simple elements like receiving a badge in Foursquare or observing the curve of your last run charted on a graph via the exercise-tracking mobile application of NikePlus require attention to detail. Too often educational games and simulations c02.indd 46 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 82](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=82&annotation=C67C3NLZ) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 47 disregard aesthetics, which can cause an experience to be less engaging and less compelling. It is not that good aesthetics will make a bad experience great; they won’t. But they can lift a good experience into a great experience. However, don’t confuse aesthetics with realism. A game doesn’t need to have photorealistic images to be visually appealing. Games like FarmVille have simplistic and non-realistic graphics but, nevertheless, those graphics add to the game play and dynamics of the experience. It is not the realism of the graphics but the use of the graphics within the game that make them so powerful. The key is that the cues and small details add to the game environment and convey meaning. When you decide to build an oil-burning power plant in SimCity, the tiny plant puffs grayish black oil smoke into the atmosphere, just as you would expect. This is a small but critical aesthetic that adds to the experience of playing SimCity and supports the underlying story of building a city. In Civilization V, the animation of the farmers cultivating the land in unison creates a sense of people at work, which supports the game’s aesthetics. The game pieces in Bejeweled or Tetris convey meaning visually themselves. You either have the jewels you need in a row or you have a piece that you must fit into a growing floor of blocks. In those games, the visuals are how information is conveyed. In other games, first-person shooters or adventure game visuals convey information to the player within the game interface but not as part of the action of the game. These include meters indicating the level of health of a player or a map image pinpointing his or her location within the game. In some games the color of the player changes if he or she is evoking a special power, such as turning red at times of invincibility. A caution about the aesthetics of avatars and online characters. Avoid the uncanny valley, the phenomenon put forth by Masahiro Mori, a Japanese robotics scientist noted for his pioneering work on the emotional response of humans to nonhuman entities. The concept of the uncanny valley is that, as a robot or other animated figure becomes more humanlike in its movements and appearance, the emotional response to the figure becomes more favorable, but only up until a certain point. People easily relate to explicitly c02.indd 47 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 83](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=83&annotation=TX4WHN8K) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction 48 nonhuman characters like an animated person or animal because when we interact with a highly stylized or abstract avatar we are comfortable. We project attributes onto that character because the details aren’t there. At a certain point, however, the animated figure becomes too humanlike to be considered non-threatening but not human enough for us to feel comfortable, and that is the uncanny valley, the area between the cute, stylized character and a full-fledged human. If the character rendering in the game tries to go for 100 percent realistic and doesn’t make it, the learner can become “creeped out” by the avatar and be unable to relate.” [Page 84](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=84&annotation=6WDE45NK) - "Replay or Do Over The “do over” in board or card games and the replay button in video games is an important game element that is often overlooked. The replay button or do over gives the player permission to fail. In games, failure is an option. And it’s a good one. Allowing a player to fail with minimal consequences encourages exploration, curiosity, and discovery-based learning. Knowing that you can always restart the game provides a sense of freedom, and players take advantage of that freedom by placing their characters into danger to see what will happen, by using a tactic like running out into the open to learn where the enemies are hiding, or even spending too much on one resource and not enough on another to determine the consequences. Games provide the opportunity to explore a set of rules, to test hypotheses, and to remember which approaches were successful and which ones failed. In games, unlike many other activities, exploring failure and what it means is a valued approach. Players enjoy failures in a game. or at least use them to progress. The idea of failure is part of the game ethos. No one expects to successfully navigate and win a game the first time he or she plays it. In fact, people expect to fail—and look forward to the lessons learned during the failure process. Failure adds an additional level of content because it makes the player reconsider his or her approach to a game. The necessity to approach the game differently than originally planned adds to and expands the playability of the game. This is because often two or more approaches are viable to c02.indd 48 18/02/12 7:52 A” [Page 84](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=84&annotation=KCAVR967) - "It’s in the Game: Understanding Game Elements 49 successfully navigating the game, and the player, once made aware of a failed approach, is free to explore multiple options for success. Many games even have mechanisms built in for overcoming repeated failure. Often these games provide an option to temporarily “level down” to an easier level to complete a mission or provide progressively more prescriptive hints after repeated attempts by a player. These mechanisms are put into place because game designers know that, if a player cannot overcome failure, he or she will eventually quit the game and never return. Failure is only an option up to a point, and then progress is aided by the game itself. Finally, it should be noted that winning a game without failure or a do over is often a dissatisfying experience for the player. For a player to truly enjoy the game, he or she must feel that something was accomplished and achieved. Failing several times before success instills the feeling of accomplishment once a winning state is achieved. Th” [Page 85](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=85&annotation=2CJGSSQI) ![[590Zotero/Media/Kapp/Kapp-110-x79-y83.png]] - "Table 3.2. Theories and Their Impact on Gamification. Theory Impact on Gamification Design Social Learning Theory Model desired behavior so learner observes and internally processes the desired behavior. Cognitive Apprenticeship Setting and environment should be authentic and provide feedback and guidance on the learner’s activity. Flow Continually adapt to keep the learner at constant state of interest. System adapts to the right challenge level for the leaner, not too difficult and not too easy. Operant Conditioning Provide appropriate rewards, points, and badges on a variable basis to maintain learners’ interest. ARCS Theory of Motivation Grab the learner’s attention, contain relevant information, and be aimed at the appropriate level of challenge so the learner is confident he or she will be successful and provide intrinsic and extrinsic motivational elements. Malone’s Theory of Intrinsically Motivating Instruction Include elements of challenge, fantasy, and curiosity. Lepper’s Instructional Design Principles for Intrinsic Motivation Include elements of learner control, challenge, curiosity, and contextualization The Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivations for Learning Include internal and external motivational elements such as challenge, curiosity, control, fantasy, cooperation, competition, and recognition. Self-Determination Theory Provide the learner with the opportunities for autonomy, a feeling of competence, and relatedness with others. Distributed Practice Play out over time to provide spaced repetition of the content within the game. Scaffolding Start out providing a great deal of guidance and then provide less and less guidance until the learner is independently solving problems. Episodic Memory Evoke learners’ emotions to more richly encode the lessons from the game in memory.” [Page 110](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=110&annotation=NG7F4R7U) - "The result was that Bartle was able to identify that people mostly liked the same types of things within the game, but opinions were divided into four subgroups. Based on his impromptu analysis, he named and classified the four types into Achiever, Explorer, Socializer, and Killer.” [Page 168](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=168&annotation=W6JARB35) - Bartle's Player Types - "Caillois’ Patterns of Play” [Page 173](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=173&annotation=HHVG6CNC) - "Agôn (Competition) This is the concept of competition when one person or group of people attempts to defeat another. In Agôn you have winners of the game who have defeated, in some way, an opponent. Caillois identified games like football, billiards, or chess as games of Agôn.” [Page 174](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=174&annotation=WJTRSJ85) - "Alea (Chance) Caillois borrowed the term Alea from the Latin name for dice as the name to describe games of chance. Alea are games in which the outcome is based on decisions that are independent of the player such as the roll of the dice or the flipping of a coin. In this list he included games like roulette and playing the lottery.” [Page 174](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=174&annotation=S2PFMI3V) - "Mimicary (Simulation or Role Play) This is the concept of pretending or make-believe. It is the temporary acceptance of an imaginary universe. In mimicary players assume the role of others or a role they do not currently poses. Caillois identified a child waving his arms pretending to be an airplane or imitating an adult. He also points to the spectacle of theater. The concepts of a MMORPG or a flight simulator are appropriate examples of mimicary.” [Page 175](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=175&annotation=FGUEDZWC) - "Ilinx (State of Dizziness and Disorder) This is the pursuit of vertigo and trying to momentarily destroy the stability of perception. In ilinx players purposefully attempt to disorient themselves through movement. He includes activities like children spinning around, mountain climbing, and skiing as games of ilinix. Riding a rollercoaster or skydiving would also fit into this category.” [Page 175](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=175&annotation=JB7PF6BD) - "• To teach problem solving, design a game where the learner: • Assumes a role • Partakes in meaningful in-game dialogue • Navigates a complex storyline • Feels challenged • Immediately is immersed in the environment • Manipulates variables within the game • Assumes a lifelike avatar with a third-person perspective • Interacts with the environment of the game • Is forced to synthesize knowledge • Enters an authentic environment • Replays the games with different outcomes • To create a game that solves a problem: • Create a shared purpose • Celebrate accomplishments • Allow individual and team efforts • Carefully consider the point system • Use a variable interface • Be transparent about shortcomings • Create a community around the game” [Page 200](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=200&annotation=WFUPI9TA) - "• To teach concept knowledge, design a game where the learners: • Must sort and match items or content based on the attributes or traits of those items or content and not purely based on memorization. • Experience the concept they are learning about. • Experience examples and non-examples of the concept within the framework of the game. • To teach rule-based knowledge, design a game where the learners: • Experience the consequences of not following the rule. • Play a board game that outlines and provides the rules that must be learned. • Must sort and match items according to rules they are learning. • To teach procedural knowledge, design a game where the learners: • Are presented with a challenge they must overcome in following the procedure. • Practice following the procedure under difficult circumstances. • Can experience the procedure in various modes such as: demonstration, tutorial, play mode/test, and free play. • To teach soft skills, design a game where the learners: • Practice applying the guidelines in various sequences. • Make guideline-related decisions under difficult circumstances. • Can experience the impact of applying the guidelines themselves. • To teach in the affective domain, design a game where the learners: • Are immersed in the value, belief, attitude, or behavior you want to influence. • Have opportunities to achieve success within the game environment related to the affective elements you want to teach. • Hear from celebrities that are outside of the game environment or a celebrity or key player from within the game environment.” [Page 227](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=227&annotation=7PM2U898) - "• To teach in the psychomotor domain, design a game where the learners: • Have opportunities to practice the mental aspects of the psychomotor domain. • Have the opportunity to observe a player within the game conducting the psychomotor activity. • Are able to use a haptic device to mimic the steps and receive tactical feedback on the activity within the psychomotor dom” [Page 228](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=228&annotation=KLJVSCYI) - "Games and gamification experiences are not going away. The engagement achieved through games means that gamification is a concept that needs to be part of every learning professional’s tool box. Games provide meaning and context to learners, they provide a set of boundaries within a “safe” environment to explore, think, and “try things out.” Gamification is the ideal process for creating engaging learning environments. Game elements such as providing learners with permission to fail, encouragement of out-of-box thinking, and fostering a sense of control create rich learning experiences. The addition of game elements on top of traditional learning environments is a way of creating learning that aids in retention and is impactful. Learning professionals, managers, and others need to own the term “gamification” and use it to improve learning and performance within organizations.” [Page 3](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=3&annotation=highlight-p3x114y454) - Definici de gamificaci segons Kapp. - "But we should also be cautious, as consultants and gurus treat “gamification” as a personal gold rush and try to add points, rewards, and badges to everything we do. Those things are elements of most games, and among the easier to implement, but those things alone do not a game make. The more challenging and beneficial aspects to gamification include the story, the challenge, the sense of control, decision making, and a sense of mastery—these are the elements of games that are of the most value.” [Page 20](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=20&annotation=highlight-p20x134y218) - La gamificaci no son punts, recompenses, etc... Hi ha narrativa, reptes, autonomia... - "The first chapter introduces terminology. What is a game? What is gamification?” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=highlight-p25x161y458) - "Chapter Two examines the individual elements that make up a game from the rules to the aesthetics and describes how they all contribute to game play.” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=highlight-p25x161y362) - "In Chapter Three, the theories behind the elements of gamification are presented. The chapter covers operant conditioning and the reinforcement schedules, but only as one of many elements that make games engaging. Self-Determination Theory is described and related to games.” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=highlight-p25x161y266) - "Chapter Four reviews research studies describing the effectiveness of games as well as the effectiveness of specific game elements such as the use of avatars and third-person versus first-person perspective.” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=highlight-p25x161y186) - "The fifth chapter looks at how gamification can be used for learning and problem solving.” [Page 25](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=25&annotation=highlight-p25x161y106) - "Chapter Six is a discussion of both the different types of game players and the different types of games that exist. Cooperation, competitive, and the self-expression aspects of games are addressed, as are the different needs of novice, expert, and master-level players.” [Page 26](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=26&annotation=highlight-p26x134y522) - "Chapter Seven presents a framework for developing games that teach higher order thinking skills from predicting outcomes, to synthesizing content to ultimately problem solving. The chapter also presents suggestions to help with the process of developing a game to solve a specific problem.” [Page 26](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=26&annotation=highlight-p26x134y458) - "In Chapter Eight methods are presented for creating game-based learning in the cognitive domains of declarative, conceptual, and procedural knowledge as well as rules-based learning” [Page 26](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=26&annotation=highlight-p26x134y410) - "Chapter Fourteen provides two final examples of gamification in action and provides a couple of next step action items to further your research and study on gamification. The best way to experience gamification is first-hand” [Page 27](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=27&annotation=highlight-p27x161y474) - "• Motivate Action. Motivation is a process that energizes and gives direction, purpose or meaning to behavior and actions. For individuals to be motivated, the challenge must not be too hard or too simple. Driving participation in an action or activity is a core element in gamification. • Promote Learning. Gamification can be used to promote learning because many of the elements of gamification are based on educational psychology and are techniques that designers of instruction, teachers, and professors have been using for years. Items such as assigning points to activities, presenting corrective feedback, and encouraging collaboration on projects have been the staples of many educational practitioners. The difference is that gamification provides another layer of interest and a new way weaving together those elements into an engaging game space that both motivates and educates learners. • Solve Problems. Gamification has a high potential to help solve problems. The cooperative nature of games can focus more than one individual on solving a problem. The competitive nature of games encourages many to do their best to accomplish the goal of winning.” [Page 48](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=48&annotation=highlight-p48x154y306) - "A serious game is an experience designed using game mechanics and game thinking to educate individuals in a specific content domain. There are serious games for leadership, sale techniques, and other business topics as well as many serious games in the realm of healthcare. These folks approach the serious game as a noble use of game mechanics and a way to engage and interact with learners.” [Page 51](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=51&annotation=highlight-p51x161y298) - Definici de Serious Games. - "Key Takeaways The key takeaways from this chapter are • A “game” is a system in which players engage in an abstract challenge, defined by rules, interactivity, and feedback, that results in a quantifiable outcome often eliciting an emotional reaction. • “Gamification” is using game-based mechanics, aesthetics, and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems. • Gamification is not the superficial addition of points, rewards, and badges to learning experiences. • Gamification is growing; soon a gamified service for consumer goods marketing and customer retention will become as important as Facebook, Twitter, or Amazon. • Global 2000 organizations are quickly putting gamification into place. • Gamification techniques can be applied to learning applications within any type of industry, from the military to retail to computer services to manufacturing organizations. • Serious games are created by using game-based mechanics, aesthetics, and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems. In other words, they are created through the gamification of traditional learning content. • Learning professionals, educators, and faculty members have many of the skills, knowledge, and abilities to take a leadership position in the gamification of learning and instruction.” [Page 59](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=59&annotation=highlight-p59x111y110) - "Table 3.2. Theories and Their Impact on Gamification. Theory Impact on Gamification Design Social Learning Theory Model desired behavior so learner observes and internally processes the desired behavior. Cognitive Apprenticeship Setting and environment should be authentic and provide feedback and guidance on the learner’s activity. Flow Continually adapt to keep the learner at constant state of interest. System adapts to the right challenge level for the leaner, not too difficult and not too easy. Operant Conditioning Provide appropriate rewards, points, and badges on a variable basis to maintain learners’ interest. ARCS Theory of Motivation Grab the learner’s attention, contain relevant information, and be aimed at the appropriate level of challenge so the learner is confident he or she will be successful and provide intrinsic and extrinsic motivational elements. Malone’s Theory of IntrinsiInclude elements of challenge, fantasy, and curiosity. cally Motivating Instruction Lepper’s Instructional Include elements of learner control, challenge, curiosity, Design Principles for and contextualization Intrinsic Motivation The Taxonomy of Intrinsic Include internal and external motivational elements such as Motivations for Learning challenge, curiosity, control, fantasy, cooperation, competition, and recognition. Self-Determination Theory Provide the learner with the opportunities for autonomy, a feeling of competence, and relatedness with others. Distributed Practice Play out over time to provide spaced repetition of the content within the game. Scaffolding Start out providing a great deal of guidance and then provide less and less guidance until the learner is independently solving problems. Episodic Memory Evoke learners’ emotions to more richly encode the lessons from the game in memory.” [Page 110](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=110&annotation=highlight-p110x86y96) - "The result was that Bartle was able to identify that people mostly liked the same types of things within the game, but opinions were divided into four subgroups. Based on his impromptu analysis, he named and classified the four types into Achiever, Explorer, Socializer, and Killer.” [Page 168](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=168&annotation=highlight-p168x134y100) - Bartle's Player Types - "Caillois’ Patterns of Play” [Page 173](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=173&annotation=highlight-p173x111y237) - "Agôn (Competition) This is the concept of competition when one person or group of people attempts to defeat another. In Agôn you have winners of the game who have defeated, in some way, an opponent. Caillois identified games like football, billiards, or chess as games of Agôn.” [Page 174](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=174&annotation=highlight-p174x85y472) - "Alea (Chance) Caillois borrowed the term Alea from the Latin name for dice as the name to describe games of chance. Alea are games in which the outcome is based on decisions that are independent of the player such as the roll of the dice or the flipping of a coin. In this list he included games like roulette and playing the lottery.” [Page 174](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=174&annotation=highlight-p174x85y174) - "Mimicary (Simulation or Role Play) This is the concept of pretending or make-believe. It is the temporary acceptance of an imaginary universe. In mimicary players assume the role of others or a role they do not currently poses. Caillois identified a child waving his arms pretending to be an airplane or imitating an adult. He also points to the spectacle of theater. The concepts of a MMORPG or a flight simulator are appropriate examples of mimicary.” [Page 175](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=175&annotation=highlight-p175x112y436) - "Ilinx (State of Dizziness and Disorder) This is the pursuit of vertigo and trying to momentarily destroy the stability of perception. In ilinx players purposefully attempt to disorient themselves through movement. He includes activities like children spinning around, mountain climbing, and skiing as games of ilinix. Riding a rollercoaster or skydiving would also fit into this category.” [Page 175](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=175&annotation=highlight-p175x112y214) - "• To teach problem solving, design a game where the learner: • Assumes a role • Partakes in meaningful in-game dialogue • Navigates a complex storyline • Feels challenged • Immediately is immersed in the environment • Manipulates variables within the game • Assumes a lifelike avatar with a third-person perspective • Interacts with the environment of the game • Is forced to synthesize knowledge • Enters an authentic environment • Replays the games with different outcomes • To create a game that solves a problem: • Create a shared purpose • Celebrate accomplishments • Allow individual and team efforts • Carefully consider the point system • Use a variable interface • Be transparent about shortcomings • Create a community around the game” [Page 200](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=200&annotation=highlight-p200x154y78) - "• To teach concept knowledge, design a game where the learners: • Must sort and match items or content based on the attributes or traits of those items or content and not purely based on memorization. • Experience the concept they are learning about. • Experience examples and non-examples of the concept within the framework of the game. • To teach rule-based knowledge, design a game where the learners: • Experience the consequences of not following the rule. • Play a board game that outlines and provides the rules that must be learned. • Must sort and match items according to rules they are learning. • To teach procedural knowledge, design a game where the learners: • Are presented with a challenge they must overcome in following the procedure. • Practice following the procedure under difficult circumstances. • Can experience the procedure in various modes such as: demonstration, tutorial, play mode/test, and free play. • To teach soft skills, design a game where the learners: • Practice applying the guidelines in various sequences. • Make guideline-related decisions under difficult circumstances. • Can experience the impact of applying the guidelines themselves. • To teach in the affective domain, design a game where the learners: • Are immersed in the value, belief, attitude, or behavior you want to influence. • Have opportunities to achieve success within the game environment related to the affective elements you want to teach. • Hear from celebrities that are outside of the game environment or a celebrity or key player from within the game environment.” [Page 227](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=227&annotation=highlight-p227x181y94) - "• To teach in the psychomotor domain, design a game where the learners: • Have opportunities to practice the mental aspects of the psychomotor domain. • Have the opportunity to observe a player within the game conducting the psychomotor activity. • Are able to use a haptic device to mimic the steps and receive tactical feedback on the activity within the psychomotor dom” [Page 228](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/B47FFWL9?page=228&annotation=highlight-p228x154y494) > [!context]- > Context:: > [!importància]- > Importància::