Group Cognition - Evolució d'un Doctorat

<%"---"%> tags: 📥️/📜️/🟥️ publish: true aliases: - Group Cognition - stahlGroupCognition2006 <%"---"%> <%* let title = "Group Cognition"; let date = tp.date.now("YYYY-MM-DD"); await tp.file.rename(`& ${date} ${title}`); _%> > [!link]- > zotero_link:: [Stahl - 2006 - Group Cognition.pdf](zotero://select/library/items/H9NX6I8Q) > [!cite]- > citekey:: stahlGroupCognition2006 > [!abstract]- > abstract:: > [!keywords]- > keywords:: home pensant > [!authors]- > authors:: Gerry Stahl > [!meta]- > url:: > doi:: > [!related]- ```dataview TABLE created, updated as modified, tags, type FROM "" WHERE related != null AND contains(related, "stahlGroupCognition2006") ``` > [!hypothesis]- > hypothesis:: > [!methodology]- > methodology:: > [!result]- Result(s) > results:: > [!summary]- Summary of Key Points > summary:: ## Notes | Highlight Color | Meaning | | ---------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------- | | Red | Disagree with Author | | Orange | Important Point By Author | | Yellow | Interesting Point | | Green | Important To Me | | Blue | Notes After Initial Iteration | | Purple | Literary Note To Lookup Later | - "CSCL is differentiated from related domains in the following ways: • Group: the focus is not on individual learning, but learning in and by small groups of students. • Cognition: the group activity is not one of working, but of constructing new understanding and meaning within contexts of instruction and learning. • Computer support: the learning does not take place in isolation, but with support by computer-based tools, functionality, micro-worlds, media and networks. • Building: the concern is not with the transmission of known facts, but with the construction of personally meaningful knowledge. • Collaborative: the interaction of participants is not competitive or accidental, but involves systematic efforts to work and learn together. • Knowledge: the orientation is not to drill and practice of specific elementary facts or procedural skills, but to discussion, debate, argumentation and deep understanding.” [Page 11](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=11&annotation=FC23LWRE) - Característiques de l'espai CD. Revisar i ampliar amb la R. - "Mediated Cognition: Vygotsky’s work from the 1920’s and 1930’s only became available in English 50 years later, when it proposed a radically different view of cognition and learning as socially and collaboratively mediated. • Distributed Cognition: This alternative developed by a number of writers (e.g., Suchman, Winograd, Pea, Hutchins) also stressed the importance of not viewing the mind as isolated from artifacts and other people. • Situated Learning: Lave’s work applied the situated perspective to learning, showing how learning can be viewed as a community process. • Knowledge building: Scardamalia and Bereiter developed the notion of community learning with a model of collaborative knowledge building in computer-supported classrooms. • Meaning making: Koschmann argued for re-conceptualizing knowledge building as meaning making, drawing upon theories of conversation analysis and ethnomethodology. • Group Cognition: This book arrives at a theory of group cognition by pushing this progression a bit further with the help of a series of software implementation studies, empirical a” [Page 12](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=12&annotation=342EFT4B) - Marc Teòric ampliat de l'aprenentatge col·laboratiu. Acompanyar la cognició distribuïda. ![[590Zotero/Media/stahlGroupCognition2006/stahlGroupCognition2006-22-x335-y107.png]] - "The view of group cognition that emerges from the following essays is one worth working hard to support with technology. Group cognition is presented in stronger terms than previous descriptions of distributed cognition. Here it is argued that high-level thinking and other cognitive activities take place in group discourse, and that these are most appropriately analyzed at the small-group unit of analysis. The focus on mediation of group cognition is presented more explicitly than elsewhere, suggesting implications for theory, methodology, design, and future research generally.” [Page 26](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=26&annotation=AVJECDEQ) - Comparativa Distributed-Group - "Constructivism does not entail the rejection of a curriculum. Rather, it requires a more complex and flexible curriculum.” [Page 36](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=36&annotation=I3VQQVET) - Dos adjectius que definiran l'espai de construccció del coneixement que intentem crear: complex i flexible. - "Evolving a Learning Environment” [Page 49](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=49&annotation=4GN2QZV9) - Passa de la teòrica de l'aprenantatge col·laboratiu a crear l'espai d'aprenentatge. - "Educational theory emphasizes the importance of students constructing their own understanding in their own terms.” [Page 51](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=51&annotation=HNMX88SH) - Relació a l'aprenentatge entre iguals. Stahl parla, però no aprofundeix en la Co-associació professor-alumne - "Evolution of the Student-Computer Interface” [Page 53](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=53&annotation=BZ454K3F) - "Evolution of Feedback Techniques” [Page 56](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=56&annotation=AKMZVQG8) - Fa DBR i dóna molta importancia al feedback. - "Co-Evolution” [Page 61](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=61&annotation=58TGDA34) - Concepte que s'hauria d'incorporar a Obsidian: Co-Evolució - "The theory of situated cognition argues that only people’s tacit pre-understanding can make data meaningful in context. Neither people nor computers alone can take advantage of huge stores of data; such information is valueless unless designers use it in their interpretations of design situations. The data handling capabilities of computers should be used to support the uniquely human ability to understand. The philosophy of interpretation suggests that several aspects of human understanding and collaboration can be supported with mechanisms like those in HERMES, such as refining representations of the design situation, creating alternative perspectives on the task and sharing linguistic expressions. Together, situated cognition theory and Heidegger’s philosophy of interpretation provide a theoretical framework for a principled approach to computer support for designers’ situated interpretation in the information age.” [Page 93](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=93&annotation=B583PBR3) - Els dos pilars del marc teòric d'Stahl son Heidegger i la Situated Cognition - "computer-based and Web-based” [Page 94](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=94&annotation=WN3U4LZ8) - ellaboratori.cat - "While the Web provides an obvious medium for collaborative work, it provides no support for the interplay of individual and group understanding that drives collaboration. First, we need ways to find and work with information that matches our personal needs, interests and capabilities. Then we need means for bringing our individual knowledge together to build shared understanding and collaborative products. Enhancing the Web with perspectives may be an effective way to accomplish this. As a mechanism for computer-based information systems, the term perspective means that a particular, restricted segment of an information repository is being considered, stored, categorized and annotated. This segment consists of the information that is relevant to a particular person or group, possibly personalized in its display or organization to the needs and interests of that individual or team. Computer support for perspectives allows people in a group to interact with a shared community memory; everyone views and maintains their own perspective on the information without interfering with content displayed in the perspectives of other group members” [Page 111](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=111&annotation=5BYUGPRN) - Marc Teòric per descriure ellaboratori.cat - "Extending Human Cognition” [Page 117](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=117&annotation=SYA7AXZN) - Una de les línies d'aquesta investigació: extendre la cognició humana - "Perspectives on Collaborative Learning” [Page 120](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=120&annotation=YW7WHWVQ) - "4. Types of Perspectives WebGuide provides several levels of perspectives (see figure 2) within a web of perspective inheritance to help students compile their individual and joint research: • The class perspective is created by the teacher to start each team off with an initial structure and some suggested topics. It typically establishes a framework for classroom activities and defines a space used to instantiate the goal of collecting the products of collaborative intellectual work. • The team perspective contains notes that have been accepted by a team. This perspective can be pivotal; it gradually collects the products of the team effort. • The student’s personal perspective is an individual’s work space. It inherits a view of everything in the student’s team’s perspective. Thus, it displays the owner’s own work within the context of notes proposed or negotiated by the team and class—as modified by the student. Students can each modify (add, edit, delete, rearrange, link) their virtual copies of team notes in their personal perspectives. They can also create completely new material there. This computational perspective provides a personal workspace in which a student can construct his or her own figurative perspective on shared knowledge. Other people can view the student’s personal perspective, but they cannot modify it. • The comparison perspective combines all the personal perspectives of team members and the team perspective, so that anyone can compare all the work that is going on in the team. It inherits from personal perspectives and, indirectly, from the team and class perspectives. Students can go here to get ideas and copy notes into their own personal perspective or propose items for the team perspective. Of course, there is not really a duplication of information in the community memory. The perspectives mechanism merely displays the information differently in the different perspectival views, in accordance with the relations of inheritance.” [Page 127](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=127&annotation=RPTE6JKI) - Portar l'esquema i els Tipus de Perspectives a ellaboratori.cat i verificar si s'han complert - "Structuring of Learning Situations We have argued based on previous experience that the crucial aspect of supporting collaborative learning has to do with structuring social practices (Koschmann, Ostwald, & Stahl, 1998). Practice, in the sense of Bourdieu’s concept of habitus (Bourdieu, 1972/1995), is the set of generally tacit procedures that are culturally adopted by a community.” [Page 139](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=139&annotation=X8AJLAJB) - Els estudiants de cursos anteriors formen part de la cognició de grup dels alumnes actuals mitjançant ellaboratori.cat - "Groupware Goes to School” [Page 155](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=155&annotation=XVF2J5MR) - "Why should CSCW and CSCL be distinguished? There is at least a superficial rationale for this. CSCW is concerned with the world of work, where people must accomplish commercially productive tasks, while CSCL is concerned with the world of schooling, where students must learn basic skills that will in the end allow them to function effectively in the world of work and in adult society generally.” [Page 156](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=156&annotation=5YXMDGWA) - Punt que m'agradaria desenvolupar: la diferencia entre Treball i Aprenentatge. Deixar clara la diferència i poder (si es vol) barrejar-la com amb la Realitat Mixta - "Work may require just-in-time learning, where existing information must be found to solve a current problem.” [Page 156](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=156&annotation=Z9KD6IAY) - "The Role of Negotiation in Collaborative Learning To appreciate the role of negotiation in CSCL, consider the centrality of negotiation within each of the different theoretical frameworks that have historically dominated this field: Small-group process. This approach to cooperative (sic, not collaborative) learning maintains a view of learning as transfer of information from teacher to students, and conducts experiments to demonstrate the increase in individual learning outcomes through group work in classrooms (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). A typical approach would be to divide up topics within a course and assign the topics to small groups; the small groups would negotiate agreed upon solutions to their topic; the different groups would then share their solutions with the larger group, for instance using procedures like “jig-sawing” (Brown & Campione, 1994). Social constructivism. Knowledge is socially co-constructed (Vygotsky, 1930/1978) before it may be internalized by children based on what they are capable of understanding. This social co-construction is a negotiation process by which shared understanding is reached about a “knowledge object” or knowledge “artifact” (Bereiter, 2002) (see chapter 15). Distance education. Even when peer interaction is possible in distance education, for instance with threaded discussion software, it is hard to encourage sustained, in-depth knowledge building; discussions tend to diverge without some form of negotiation to bring different people’s ideas back together (Hewitt & Teplovs, 1999). Distributed problem-based learning. Originally developed for medical education, PBL is built around problem cases, like patients presenting illness symptoms that a group of about five students and a tutor attempt to diagnose. The group negotiates lists of problem statements, key evidence, working hypotheses and learning issues. Then the individual students research relevant medical theories and come back to the group to renegotiate the group understanding. The tutor plays a key role in guiding the negotiation (Barrows, 1994).” [Page 182](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=182&annotation=QHHN3TS3) - Marc Teòric per descriure el concepte Negociació. - "Distributed cognition. Knowledge is not simply a matter of an individual’s mental representations, but is frequently distributed among the abilities of group members and the artifacts that they use (Hutchins, 1996). Accordingly, knowledge is co-constructed by interactions among people and their shared artifacts, including prominently by means of negotiation practices that result in establishing a common ground for understanding. Situated learning. This approach views learning in terms of changing relations within the community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Like situated action theory (Suchman, 1987) and ethnomethodology (Garfinkel, 1967), the situated learning approach looks at how people skillfully interact socially to co-construct and interactively negotiate knowledge, rather than at individuals as possessors of explicit propositional knowledge. Cultural-historical activity theory. Learning is viewed as it takes place over extended periods of time and within its broad cultural and historical contexts. It is even possible to track “expansive learning” in which multiple groups negotiate changes to the existing social arrangements (Engeström, 1999). Here, again, socially shared artifacts play a significant role in providing a focus to negotiations. It is possible to conceptualize collaborative learning in different ways, focusing on various units of analysis as seen above. However, in each approach some form of negotiation plays a central role in the learning process. In order to design computer support for negotiation in collaborative learning, it is necessary to specify an appropriate concept of such negotiation.” [Page 183](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=183&annotation=4DZE5AUF) - "BSCL is an adaptation and extension of the BSCW system for collaborative learning applications in schools. It assigns roles of teacher and student, that define the available functionality and access rights of the users. Courses are usually split into smaller workgroups (typically comprising about 3 to 7 students) that pursue specific learning goals and produce group products or portfolios. Each student, workgroup and course has an associated “virtual learning place,” i.e., a folder in which information and ideas are collected, typically in the form of documents, notes, links to Web pages and discussion threads. Learning places may be hierarchically structured in sub-folders. The default structure of learning places supports the concept of perspectives: There are personal, workgroup and course perspectives for students collaborating in workgroups within larger academic courses. Teachers and students can use BSCW operations to create other kinds of folder structures, but the structure to support typical workgroup collaborative activities is generated automatically by BSCL as the default.” [Page 185](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=185&annotation=YLDWNXZ9) - Descripció de ellaboratori.cat - "In developing the studies of part II, two analytic perspectives played a major role: socio-cultural psychology and communication analysis. I actively pursued an understanding of them in order to resolve some of the mysteries that arose in my earlier software studies. Socio-Cultural Psychology. Vygotsky’s thinking had an immediate catalytic effect on me when I first read his Mind in Society (1930/1978). I was excited by his deep and original appropriation of Hegel and Marx, and by his materialist theory of mind. I was intrigued not so much by what he actually explored in his experiments and what is generally interpreted as a psychology still centered on the individual mind, but by the vision he sketched, often between the lines, of a truly socially-constructed mind, whose consciousness is derivative of the culture in which it was constructed. While my reading of Vygotsky is explicated more in part III, his emphasis on the role of artifacts in mediated cognition is already central to part II. In particular, these studies pursue the question of how people come to understand the meaning or affordances of artifacts and what implications this has for the design of groupware conceptualized as a mediating artifact. Communication Analysis. In my search to understand perspectives and negotiation, I turned to communication analysis. This choice was obviously also compatible with Vygotsky’s emphasis on language and interaction. Colleagues, methods and ideas from the discipline of communication made possible the analyses of this part, particularly chapter 12. The most relevant work for me was that of ethnomethodology (Garfinkel, 1967) and conversation analysis (Sacks, 1992). In general, I think that interactionist theories of communication have led the way in understanding the philosophical and methodological issues that are essential for developing a theoretical framework, empirical analysis and software support design practice for collaboration.” [Page 196](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=196&annotation=S3RGJNP8) - Marc Teòric: Vygotsky - "Martin Heidegger (1927/1996) (an important recent German philosopher) and clarify meanings accept as one's own negotiate perspectives explicate implications social knowledge building personal understanding personal comprehension tacit preunderstandi ng personal focus shared understandi ng public statements collaborative knowledge use in activity make problematic articulate in words other people's public statements argumentation & rationale cultural artifacts formalize & objectify discuss alternatives Figure 9-1. A diagram of knowledge-building processes.” [Page 201](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=201&annotation=A2HXRAH6) - "Donald Schön (1983) (an influential American theoretician of design) argue that learning starts on the basis of tacit pre-understanding (Polanyi, 1962; Winograd & Flores, 1986) (see chapter 4). Some form of breakdown in planning or in our worldly activity renders elements of this tacit understanding problematic on occasion (Dewey & Bentley, 1949/1991). The network of meanings by which we make sense of our world is torn asunder and must be mended. The resolution of the problem proceeds through a gnawing awareness of the problematic nature of some piece of our understanding. We may be able to repair our understanding by explicating the implications of that understanding and resolving conflicts or filling in gaps—by reinterpreting our meaning structures—to arrive at a new comprehension. This typically involves some feedback from the world: from our experience with artifacts such as our tools and symbolic representations. For instance, we might learn a new sense of some word or a new application of a familiar tool—more ambitiously, our understanding might undergo a fundamental conceptual change. If we are successful and the problem disappears, this new comprehension gradually settles in to become our new tacit understanding and to provide the starting point for future understanding and further learning. The process of interpretation that seems to be carried out at the level of the individual mind is already an essentially social process. The network of “personal” meanings ultimately has its origin in interpersonal language and culture. Interpretation takes place within language (Wittgenstein, 1953), history (Gadamer, 1960/1988), culture (Bourdieu, 1972/1995; Bruner, 1990; Cole, 1996), social structures (Giddens, 1984b) and politics (Habermas, 1981/1984). Our “internal” thought process capabilities and structures themselves have origins in our previous social interactions (Mead, 1934/1962; Vygotsky, 1930/1978). Our personal interpretive perspective or voice is a consolidation of many perspectives and voices or genres of others we have known (Bakhtin, 1986b; Boland & Tenkasi, 1995). However, this social context and origin is hidden because it has been incorporated into the tacit pre-understandings of the individual. It can only be made visible by means of scientific methods, which remove the observer from the primary human engagement with the world and allow objective analysis as a result of such systematic alienation (Heidegger, 1927/1996; Husserl, 1936/1989). It is not always possible to resolve the problematic character of our personal understanding internally, particularly when it is provoked by other people. Then we may need to enter into an explicitly social process and create new meanings collaboratively. To do this, we typically articulate our initial belief in words and express ourselves in public statements.” [Page 202](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=202&annotation=QNJVF6NU) - Marc Teòric per explicar els processos de construcció de coneixement - "Knowledge-Building Environments (KBEs)” [Page 205](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=205&annotation=9DM3KU6T) - Concepte clau per unir la teoria i la pràctica - "A KBE should go beyond a single-purpose system—like a simple discussion forum—and support more than one phase of the social knowledge-building process. It should retain a record of the knowledge that was built up—unlike common chat, newsgroup and listserv systems that erase contributions after a short period of time. It should, therefore, probably be built on asynchronous, persistent collaborative technologies and be deployed on the Internet as a Webbased environment. A KBE should support at least several of the lifecycle phases of knowledge building. It should help people to express their beliefs, to discuss them with others, to differentiate their own perspectives and adopt those of other people, clarify disagreements or misunderstandings, critique and explicate claims, negotiate shared understandings or agreements and formulate knowledge in a lasting representation.” [Page 208](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=208&annotation=HPRMEQWH) - Característiques d'un KBE - "Because KBEs are computational, they should provide facilities like searching, browsing, filtering, tailoring and linking. Beyond that, they could incorporate heuristics that automatically suggest relevant connections, critique problems in the knowledge base and deliver information automatically when it might be useful. They can also compile and format sets of notes in convenient displays. KBEs can interface with other software and systems, sending, for instance, emails to notify collaborators when important events take place in the environment.” [Page 208](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=208&annotation=8AI93UMZ) - "A KBE is a software environment intended to support collaborative learning. The process model of knowledge building presented in this chapter provides a conceptual framework for the design, use and assessment of such systems by indicating important phases that could be supported. In broad terms, computer support should provide a workspace in which ideas can be articulated, can come into interaction with other ideas from multiple viewpoints, can be further developed and can approach consensus. It should afford, facilitate or even encourage this multi-phased community process. It should provide a convenient medium to formulate, represent and communicate ideas at the various phases. And it should preserve the ideas and their various formulations in its computer-based medium to allow for review, reflection and continuation at any time or from any place. As the model suggests, collaborative learning is a complex process. Given the constraints on community members who lead busy, geographically distributed lives, KBEs have the potential to provide computationally-supported communication media to facilitate this process that forms a centerpiece of collaborative learning.” [Page 209](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=209&annotation=6M3YSCA8) - Concepte clau: KBE - "CSILE (ComputerSupported Intentional Learning Environment)” [Page 214](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=214&annotation=E29DHN2E) - Passa a descriure l'entorn - "Based on these scores, they were classified as having one of four learning styles: applicationdirected, reproduction-directed, meaning-directed, or undirected.” [Page 215](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=215&annotation=DZH95ABJ) - "The Teacher’s Role” [Page 217](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=217&annotation=LPDJKQYC) - Co-Associació - "Hakkarainen et al. are interested in the “epistemology of inquiry” in CSCL classrooms. That is, they want to see what kinds of knowledge are being generated by the students in three different classrooms—two in Canada and one in Finland—using CSILE. To analyze the kinds of knowledge, they code the ideas entered into the CSILE database along a number of dimensions. For instance, student knowledge ideas were coded as either (a) scientific information being introduced into the discussion or (b) a student’s own view. Ideas of both these kinds were then rated as to their level of explanatory power: (a) statement of isolated facts, (b) partially org” [Page 217](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=217&annotation=CFZM282J) - "Statistical analysis of outcomes has dominated educational research because it was assumed that learning takes place inside people’s heads, and since Descartes it has been assumed that we have only indirect access to those processes. Much work in the cognitive sciences, including artificial intelligence, assumes that we can, at best, model the mental representations that are somehow formed or instilled by learning. Whatever we may think of these assumptions as applied to individual cognition, they surely do not apply to collaborative learning. By definition, this is an intersubjective achievement; it takes place in observable interactions among people in the world.” [Page 221](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=221&annotation=ISNAVZ52) - "Observing Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning If collaborative learning is visible, then why haven’t more researchers observed and reported it? Perhaps the answer is because collaborative knowledge building is so rare today. I have tried to use systems similar to CSILE in several classrooms and have failed to see them used for knowledge building” [Page 223](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=223&annotation=CZY34AP5) - "Activity Theory. In recent decades, the development of theory has taken place largely within niches of the social sciences: anthropology (critical ethnography), communication (conversation analysis), sociology (ethnomethodology) and psychology (socio-cultural). This has shifted the focus of theory from the traditional lone thinker to broader socio-cultural phenomena. For instance, activity theory (Engeström, 1999) situates the individual firmly in the activity system, which includes not only other individuals, but the mediating artifacts and the community or societal context as a contradictory whole. Artifacts—whether words or tools—are not taken as simply physical or mental, but as both meaningful and embodied. Individuals and society are not treated as independent identities, but as mutually constituting each other, so” [Page 275](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=275&annotation=RP69YNH6) - Activity Theory - "• Can we learn from traditional communication theories and technologies how to support online small groups? (chapter 14) • Can processes of group cognition and collaborative learning provide a basis for individual cognition and personal learning? (chapter 15) • Can we identify meaning making and knowledge building at the group unit? (chapter 16) • Can we understand how group meaning is shared among group members? (chapter 17) • Can we make learning visible in group discourse, so we do not have to be confined to measuring indirect learning outcomes? (chapter 18) • Can we say that it is possible for a group as such to think / learn / build knowledge / construct meanings that cannot be attributed to any of the group members individually? (chapter 19) • Can we develop new conceptions of group discourse that might open up innovative approaches to fostering group cognition? (chapter 20) • Can we identify rational sequences of reasoning at the small-group unit of analysis, so we can say that the group as such is engaging in high-level thought? (chapter 21” [Page 276](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=276&annotation=4RTXLBY2) - Preguntes d'investigació - "Figure 14-1. Influences on individual theories of learning (top of figure) and social theories of learning (below the line).” [Page 282](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=282&annotation=PCJQZLBM) - Esquema que ha d'apareixer en el marc teòric - "Theories of Learning” [Page 283](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=283&annotation=UN75Y58F) - Teories d'Aprenentatge - "Technological Support of Groups Computer support of one-on-one communication is relatively well understood. Systems like email may not be perfect, but they do the job for most people. Smallgroup collaborative communication is much harder to support, because it involves sharing across multiple perspectives. Integrated design. Collaborative software must not only allow people to share documents, diagrams, etc. They should also allow the collaborators to discuss these artifacts together. For instance, users should be able to annotate segments of text or pictures or even other annotations, thereby potentially constructing threaded discussions of the shared materials. Shared meaningful media. Both the computer support media and the curricular content materials they convey are meaningful artifacts. They embody meanings that group members must learn and come to share. Collaborators can only use a software artifact or the documents stored in it if they can make sense of the documents and of the technology, as it was designed. Furthermore, this sense must be constructed collaboratively if it is to work for the group. The software must be designed in a way that permits or fosters this. Social awareness. In communication that is not face-to-face, there should be mechanisms to support social awareness, so that participants know what other group members are doing, such as whether they are available for chat. Participants should have a presence when communicating and should feel they are engaged in a social experience. Knowledge management. A variety of tools should be provided to help groups organize the information and artifacts that they are assembling and discussing. These tools should allow knowledge to be organized by the group as a whole, so that everyone can see the shared state of knowledge as well as possible individual arrangements” [Page 288](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=288&annotation=9JS76MLE) - "Communicating with Technology 283 Group decision support. In order to arrive at a body of shared knowledge, group negotiation and decision making must be supported. There should be mechanisms that foster both divergent brainstorming and convergent consensus building. Shared learning place. The starting point for a groupware environment is a shared repository and communication center, such as a virtual meeting place.” [Page 289](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=289&annotation=RAWM5LAK) - Tipus de gadgets desenvolupats a ellaboratori.cat - "Pedagogy of Collaboration The nature of CSCL communication suggests that curricula be structured much differently than traditional didactic teaching, lecturing, rote practice and testing. Support for group discourse. The centerpiece of collaborative learning practice is the promotion of group discourse. Group members must be able to engage in a variety of modes of discursive interaction. This is the way that knowledge is constructed at the group level. Scaffolding. The teacher’s role is to scaffold the group discourse. This means providing tasks, structure, guidance and supports. These are offered primarily at the beginning. As the students learn how to direct their own collaborative learning, many of these supports by the teacher can be gradually withdrawn, like the superstructure of scaffolding around a building under construction, which is removed when the building can stand on its own. The teacher functions mainly as a facilitator of learning, rather than as a primary source of factual domain knowledge. Pedagogical situations. The definition of goals, tasks, media and resources is critical to the success of collaborative learning. Designing and implementing effective pedagogical situations or opportunities for collaborative learning is the subtle and essential job of the teacher. Especially in the early stages, the teacher must also guide the students through the collaboration process, modeling for them how to focus on key learning issues and how to frame manageable tasks. Often, a teacher’s guiding question will define an impromptu learning occasion. Groups and communities. Ultimately, individual students should grow into positions of skillful leadership within the larger learning community. Practice within small groups builds that capability. In many ways, the small groups mediate between the individuals and the community, providing a manageable social setting for students learning interaction skills and structuring an amorphous community into specialized units. Learning artifacts. Artifacts are units of past knowledge building, externalized and made permanent in some physical, digital or linguistic form. They facilitate the passing down of knowledge from one generation of collaborative learners to another. By learning to interpret the meaning of an artifact, a new group discover” [Page 289](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=289&annotation=ZBHMUCXW) - "284 G. Stahl the knowledge that a previous group stored there. Pedagogical situations should contain carefully designed learning artifacts. Problem-based learning. An illustrative pedagogical method for collaborative learning is problem-based learning for medical students (Barrows, 1994). Groups of students work with a mentor who is skilled in collaborative learning but who offers no medical information. During their course of study, students engage in a series of medical cases that have been carefully designed to cover the field of common medical issues. Students discuss a case in a group and then individually research learning issues that their group identifies, coming back together to explore hypotheses and develop diagnoses. Exploration of a case involves indepth research in medical texts and research literature. The case itself is furnished with rich artifacts like patient test results. Two years of mentored collaborative learning in small student groups prepares the medical students for communicating collaboratively as interns within teams in the hospital.” [Page 290](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=290&annotation=NQZA9MKI) - Tipus de pedagogies basat en l'aprenentatge col·laboratiu - "Here are some representative theories that focus on the group as a possible unit of knowledge construction: • Collaborative Knowledge Building. A group can build knowledge that cannot be attributed to an individual or to a combination of individual contributions (Bereiter, 2002). • Social Psychology. One can and should study knowledge construction at both the individual and group unit of analysis, as well as studying the interactions between them (Resnick et al., 1991). • Distributed Cognition. Knowledge can be spread across a group of people and the tools that they use to solve a problem, and can emerge through their interaction (Hutchins, 1996; Solomon, 1993). • Situated Cognition. Knowledge often consists of resources for practical activity in the world more than of rational propositions or mental representations (Schön, 1983; Suchman, 1987; Winograd & Flores, 1986). • Situated Learning. Learning is the changing participation of people in communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Shumar & Renninger, 2002). • Zone of Proximal Development. Children grow into the intellectual life of those around them; they develop in collaboration with adults or more capable peers (Vygotsky, 1930/1978)” [Page 345](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=345&annotation=E9MHK343) - "340 G. Stahl • Activity Theory. Human understanding is mediated not only by physical and symbolic artifacts, but also by the social division of labor and cultural practices (Engeström, 1999; Nardi, 1996). • Ethnomethodology. Human understanding, inter-personal relationships and social structures are achieved and reproduced interactionally (Dourish, 2001; Garfinkel, 1967).” [Page 346](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=346&annotation=SA2UE8S8) - "• H1 (collaborative group hypothesis): Small groups are most effective at building knowledge if members share interests but bring to bear diverse backgrounds and perspectives. • H2 (collaborative curriculum hypothesis): Educational activities can be designed to encourage and structure effective collaborative learning by presenting open-ended problems requiring shared deep understanding. • H3 (collaborative technology hypothesis): Online computer support environments can be designed to facilitate effective collaborative learning that overcomes some of the limitations of face-to-face communication. • H4 (collaborative cognition hypothesis): Members of collaborative small groups can internalize group knowledge as their own individual knowledge and they can externalize it in persistent artifacts. • H5 (collaborative methodology hypothesis): Quantitative and qualitative analysis and interpretation of interaction logs can make visible to researchers the online learning of small groups and individuals. We believe that the theoretical confusion surroun” [Page 353](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=353&annotation=UA553L48) - Tipus de metodologies sorgides del projecte - "• In part I, case studies of software design increasingly took the form of viewing software as a medium that opens up and supports group communication and collaboration—or fails to do so. This led to an attempt to experience and understand how innovative software prototypes function (for the user as well as the designer) as mediating artifacts. • In part II, the analysis of interaction was approached as the making visible of that which happens in discourse, without objectifying and reifying utterances as quantifiable expressions of individuals’ thoughts. This took the form of a micro-ethnographic study of a small group of students collaboratively learning about the meaning or affordances of a digital artifact with which they were working. • In part III, theoretical reflections explored the concept of shared meaning and group cognition as related to the speaking of language in discourse. A network of related concepts was explored, including: artifacts, situation, mediation, meaning, interpretation, tacit knowing, explicit knowing, perspectives and negotiation” [Page 415](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=415&annotation=BCWFEG44) - Passos de la seva investigació - "Group Cognition and Distributed Cognitions The notion of group cognition developed here may be considered a strong form of distributed cognition. It goes considerably beyond Norman’s (1993) argument that the individual mind extends outside the head to artifacts in the world as forms of external memory, like a reminder string on the finger. Many discussions of distributed cognition (as surveyed by Perkins, 1993) start from the individual and gradually add on elements of the person’s physical environment as cognitive aids or factors. Artifacts that extend perception (like the tip of a blind person’s cane) are often considered first, followed by external memory devices (notes on scraps of paper) or computational tools (calculator). A danger of this approach is that one is always tempted to fall back on the individual mind as the central locus of cognition. The concept of group cognition in this book takes the collaborative interaction as starting point, e.g., a math proposal adjacency pair. The collective discourse is primary, and the individual appears as a node of the group, a contributor of pieces of the whole and an interpreter of the shared meaning. An individual act that is not part of a group process—for instance an utterance that is ignored by the group—is not a core part of the cognition, it does not contribute to the problem solving, knowledge building or meaning making. The search for the nature of collaborative knowledge building motivated by the breakdowns in the software studies of part I, culminated in the discovery in part II that the knowledge created by the boys working with the SimRocket program was constructed at the group-level discourse. This was paralleled in the chat log analysis in this chapter, where the problem solving was seen to be accomplished through adjacency pairs in the group discourse. The sense making occurs at the group unit of analysis and cannot be reduced to the individual level without losing its meaning. “Proposal?” remained an individual act—and was therefore consigned to irrelevance. The view of meaning making as a group achievement is adopted from the social sciences, particularly ethnomethodology and conversation analysis. In the context of this book, the focus on group discourse is reflected upon as a methodological principle and the implications are drawn out for a theory of computer-supported collaboration. This approach is closely related to what is called “distributed cognition” within the academic literature of CSCW, CSCL and the learning sciences. But distributed cognition is still a contentious term. Pea (1993b) proposed a version that is compatible with group cognition. For instance, he recognized the relation of knowledge building to the merging of perspectives at the group level when he said” [Page 453](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=453&annotation=NFV65ELW) - De la Cognició Distribuïda a la Cognició de Grup - "448 G. Stahl Knowledge is commonly socially constructed, through collaborative efforts toward shared objectives or by dialogues and challenges brought about by difference in persons’ perspectives. (p. 48) He preferred the term “distributed intelligence” to “distributed cognition” because he was interested in how intelligent behavior is accomplished with resources that are distributed across people, environments and situations. He did not want to attribute cognition to the tools involved—just designed intelligence. Because the analysis of group cognition in this book is primarily concerned with the distribution of knowledge-building activities across people, Pea’s concern is less relevant—as discussed in chapter 19 where it is argued that groups of people can think even though computers cannot.” [Page 454](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/H9NX6I8Q?page=454&annotation=MBRTTZ3X) > [!context]- > ==(How this article relates to other work in the field; how it ties in with key issues and findings by others, including yourself)== > context:: > [!significance]- > ==(to the field; in relation to your own work)== > significance::